OTTOMAN SULTANS WERE MORE THAN JUST RULERS!

Almost all Ottoman sultans were master soldiers. Some of them were commanders with world-class genius. In an era of warrior-rulers, this might seem natural, but their military prowess was not merely about conquest—it was built upon an idealistic mission.

Almost all of them engaged in arts such as poetry and calligraphy, and some even gained fame in these fields. There is no other dynasty in the world, apart from the Ottomans, whose rulers were not only statesmen, soldiers, and sportsmen but also highly skilled artists, poets, calligraphers, and scholars.

Yılmaz Öztuna states: "A sultan is not just a man of war. Some of them were strict, but most were compassionate, merciful, and deeply humane. Among the Ottoman dynasty, there were successful and even great poets, composers, calligraphers, and painters."

Compared to their contemporaries, especially the state leaders of the last century, they were, in modern terms, true Renaissance men.

Bookworms

All Ottoman sultans were raised with education from the top scholars and great teachers of their time. They were all passionate about knowledge and reading. They encouraged book writing and supported scholars. Sultan Selim I would take many books with him on campaigns and, whenever he found an opportunity on the battlefield, would put on his glasses and read. Sultan Mahmud I was a bibliophile. He dedicated his books to Hagia Sophia and established a great library in the mosque he had built—this is the Nuruosmaniye Library.

The Yıldız Library, which survived looting, formed the foundation of today’s Istanbul University Library and belonged to Sultan Abdulhamid II. Sultan Mehmed II, Sultan Bayezid II, Sultan Murad III, and Sultan Ahmed III were so passionate about books and reading that they could be described as "bookworms" today.

They possessed religious knowledge at least at the level of a religious scholar, and many of them could be considered scholars themselves. They also had advanced knowledge of sciences. Sultan Mehmed II was famous for his interest in maps and his discoveries related to cannons. Sultan Mustafa III had a keen interest in medicine and was perhaps as knowledgeable as a physician. Sultan Abdulhamid II wrote a treatise on the firing range of weapons.

From the 17th century onwards, there was a global transition from the warrior-ruler type to the diplomat-ruler type. Even those sultans who did not personally participate in military campaigns were skilled in military affairs. They were devoted to the army and navy and had a deep interest in weapons. They were excellent marksmen. Sultan Mahmud II, like an ordinary colonel, would personally join his army in training exercises.

Almost all of them were sportsmen. They had knowledge of all sports. Without exception, they were excellent horsemen, skilled at playing equestrian javelin (jereed), and passionate about hunting. Sultans such as Osman II, Murad IV, and Abdulhamid II were also excellent swimmers. They would swim freely in the Golden Horn and even in the Bosphorus, as well as row boats.

Masters of Writing

Starting from Sultan Mehmed II, twenty Ottoman sultans produced calligraphic works that have survived to this day. Apart from those displayed in monumental works, their calligraphic pieces are housed in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.

Some of them studied under master calligraphers and obtained formal certificates. Sultan Bayezid II received a certificate from Sheikh Hamdullah and, out of respect, even held his teacher’s inkwell. When Sultan praised him, saying, "There will never be another like you," Sheikh Hamdullah humbly replied, "As long as people like you hold the inkwell, great calligraphers will always emerge, my sultan!"

Sultan Mustafa II studied calligraphy with Hafız Osman and signed his works as ketebehu’l-fakir (written by the humble one). His calligraphic plaque with "Basmala" (In the name of God) written on it is in Hagia Sophia Mosque. His pen was once placed beside the plaque but was lost during restoration work.

Sultan Selim III, who studied calligraphy with Şükrü Efendi, gifted a Quran manuscript he had written to the Mevlana Mausoleum.

Sultan Mahmud II received calligraphic instruction from Râkım Efendi through correspondence and earned certification. He left behind many works. The four calligraphic plaques in Hagia Sophia Mosque and the inscriptions of Hidayet Mosque are his works. His calligraphic plaques also adorn Fatih Mosque and Üsküdar Yeni Valide Mosque.

The sultan with the most surviving calligraphy works is Sultan Abdulmajid, who was a student of Tahir Efendi. The Kalima Tawhid and name plaques in the Hırka-i Şerif Mosque, which he commissioned, belong to him. His calligraphy is also found in Dolmabahçe Palace and Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque.

Some sources contain remarks attempting to ridicule or belittle certain sultans for their alleged poor handwriting. However, these statements stem from ignorance of the customs of that era. High-ranking individuals were not accustomed to writing themselves, as they employed scribes. Therefore, it was natural for them to have difficulty in writing.

Sultanic Hobbies

The sultans were engaged in various activities that did not necessarily fall under the fine arts. Some of them, like Sultan Abdulhamid II, reached a high level of mastery in fine woodworking, while others, like Sultan Mahmud I, excelled in jewelry craftsmanship.

Some sultans, even if not artisans themselves, were specialists in certain fields. For example, Sultan Mehmed II and Sultan Suleiman I were experts in precious stones.

Sultan Mehmed I was a master of archery and bow-making, which is why he was called Kirişçi (meaning "bowstring maker").

Sultan Mehmed II was known for his interest in gardening and roses. He also crafted rings for archery, belt buckles, and sword sheaths.

Sultan Bayezid II was passionate about archery and had a special market built in Istanbul for bow and arrow masters.

Sultan Suleiman I, in addition to jewelry making, was also a skilled shoemaker. He crafted leather shoes and bags, a skill he had learned from a master during his father’s governorship in Trabzon.

Earning One’s Living Through Labor Is Commendable

Sultan Selim II made walking canes and gifted them to pilgrims. He also crafted wooden reading trackers used to follow lines while reading, embedding precious stones in their ends before giving them as gifts.

Sultan Mehmed III was a master spoon-maker, a skill that his son, Sultan Ahmed I, also inherited. Sultan Ahmed I also crafted ivory rings for archers and intricately designed Circassian whips.

Sultan Osman II was interested in saddlery and made his own horse saddles. It is quite telling that, after his deposition, the horse he was mounted on had no saddle.

Sultan Ibrahim made crescent-shaped decorations for walking canes and was skilled in processing tortoiseshell to craft spoons, prayer beads, and other objects.

Sultan Mahmud I worked with jewelry and carving, engraving seals on bloodstones and making crescent-shaped decorations from ebony and ivory. He sold his works to buy personal food and donated the rest to charity. He would say, “Earning one’s living through one’s labor is commendable.” He also had a great interest in gardening and flowers.

Sultan Selim III was a master gunsmith. He crafted gun sights and front sights with such precision that his bullets never missed their mark.

Sultan Mahmud II was highly skilled in mother-of-pearl and jewelry craftsmanship.

Sultan Abdulhamid II had a keen interest in horseback riding, swimming, rowing, and marksmanship. He was exceptionally skilled in using firearms—he could carve his name with bullets and shoot through the center of medals. He was also a fine woodworker, and some of his creations have survived to this day. His works even won first place at an international exhibition in America.

Prince Seyfeddin Efendi, son of Sultan Abdulaziz, was not only a poet and musician but also an expert ship captain and a mahya (illuminated decoration) master. He would set up mahya lights for mosques free of charge.

After the invention of photography, Ottoman sultans greatly valued the art and supported photographers. The first sultan to have his photograph taken was Sultan Abdulmajid. Thanks to this, Istanbul became a center for photography. The photographs taken by Ottoman photographers today serve as some of the richest and most brilliant historical records of the past. The albums prepared under Sultan Abdulhamid II’s patronage are treasures in themselves.

Women in the palace were also taught photography. Sultan Mehmed VI was particularly passionate about photography, taking many pictures with his Kodak camera. Prince İbrahim Tevfik Efendi was known for always carrying a camera around his neck.

As per monarchical tradition, sultans were patrons of scholars and artists, bestowing immense rewards upon them. They read their works but never entertained sycophants. Thanks to their patronage, science and art flourished. Ottoman aesthetics were largely shaped by the sultans themselves.

The Palace Band

Many Ottoman sultans and princes were skilled composers. The hymn “Uyan ey gözlerim gafletten uyan” (Awaken, my eyes, from heedlessness) composed by Sultan Murad III is still sung today. Sultan Murad IV’s “Hücum Marşı” (Assault March) remains one of the finest pieces in the mehter (Janissary band) repertoire. The compositions of Sultan Selim III, Sultan Mahmud II, Sultan Abdulaziz, Sultan Murad V, and Sultan Mehmed VI were performed in the mehter and the imperial band.

During wartime, ceremonies, political gatherings, and educational settings, military music (mehter or band music) was played at specific times and was also studied in times of peace. Music is a branch of mathematics. Knowing it is different from practicing it. The status of a ruler is unlike that of an ordinary person, and there was no place for vulgarity in the palace. The palace band was also supervised by religious figures such as imams and muezzins.

As recorded in the book "Khadu’d-Dalleen" by Tosyalı Hacı Baba İbrahim Efendi, a religious scholar from Sultan Mehmed II’s era, since the sultan was constantly occupied with state affairs, the palace was considered akin to a battlefield, and thus, military music was deemed permissible.