WAS THERE FEUDALISM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE?

At one time, certain intellectuals coined the term "Ottoman Feudalism" to promote socialist ideology and ostensibly explain Turkish realities. Over time, they themselves came to believe in it.

Feudalism, also known as the manorial system, was a land-based system prevalent in medieval Western Europe. When the Roman Empire and later the Frankish Empire collapsed, central authority disappeared, weakening economic activity and fragmenting society. Consequently, people needed to unite for mutual benefits, leading to the emergence of feudalism in the 9th century. 

This system involved a hierarchy of individuals based on wealth and power, along with corresponding titles. Originating in France, it spread across Europe and reached England in the 11th century. Kings made significant efforts to consolidate the power held by lords (seigneurs). Feudalism ultimately came to an end in the 15th century.

The King at the Top of Feudalism

Feudalism fundamentally relied on a strong military force and a community of serfs (peasants) working under its command. The military force was not owned by the state but by a feudal lord, or seigneur, who ruled from a castle. The land and wealth belonged to the seigneur, who distributed land to peasants in exchange for agricultural produce and various services, including judicial oversight. 

People who entered the seigneur's service swore allegiance to him on the Bible. Similarly, weaker seigneurs were subordinated to more powerful ones, forming a hierarchy where the chief seigneur was called the suzerain, and the others were known as vassals. Vassals sent a portion of their revenues to the suzerain.

The lowest rank in the feudal hierarchy was the baron, followed by count, marquis, and duke. These individuals were typically linked by vassal-suzerain relationships. The top of the system, depending on the country, was occupied by a prince or king. 

Sometimes multiple titles were inherited or forcibly united in one person. Kings could grant noble titles, and the warriors of the feudal system were called knights, a title also held by some barons. The political dominance of feudal lords in Europe ended with the establishment of central authority by kings, though noble titles and landownership persisted.

Serfs Tied to the Land

Many associate the Ottoman timar (fief) system with European feudalism, replacing the seigneur with the sipahi (Ottoman cavalryman). While there are similarities, the differences are more pronounced.

For one, central authority was nonexistent in feudalism, with political power fragmented. Kings lacked personal military units and relied on feudal lords for strength. Seigneurs wielded judicial authority over the peasants living on their lands. In contrast, the Ottoman timar system had strong central authority, and judicial matters were handled by qadis (judges) appointed by the central administration, not the sipahis.

In feudalism, the land belonged to the seigneur, who could not be dismissed even if he oppressed peasants. In the Ottoman system, sipahis did not own the land. Since the lands were acquired through conquest, they belonged to the state. Sipahis were akin to tax collectors gathering state revenues in their districts.

European serfs were a type of slave tied to the land. They were bought and sold with the land and passed on as inheritance to the seigneur's heirs. Ottoman peasants, on the other hand, were free individuals who rented state-owned lands from the sipahi for farming. They could choose to stop farming and move elsewhere after the lease ended.

In feudal villages, the homes and gardens of serfs were also owned by the seigneur. In Ottoman timar villages, however, houses, barns, granaries, threshing floors, and gardens were generally the property of the peasants.

The Seigneur’s Right of the First Night

In feudalism, since all produce belonged to the seigneur, it was entirely collected, leaving serfs with just enough to survive. Periods of poor or no harvest meant inevitable suffering for the peasants. In the timar system, taxes were based on a fixed percentage of the produce. Thus, when yields were low, taxes were reduced proportionately. Increased effort by peasants led to greater output, incentivizing more work and production.

Feudalism involved a rigid hierarchy among seigneurs, but the timar system had no such hierarchy. One sipahi was not superior to another.

Feudalism fostered an insular lifestyle, bringing trade in Europe nearly to a halt and leading to the disappearance of cities. By contrast, the Ottoman Empire at the same time enjoyed a vibrant trade economy and many bustling cities.

Under feudalism, the seigneur controlled the personal lives of the peasants on his lands. Marriages required the seigneur’s permission, and he acted as the guardian of young children. Some even claimed the "right of the first night" with peasant brides. Ottoman sipahis, however, had no authority over the personal lives of peasants.

Even after feudalism was abolished in Europe, the aristocracy remained both officially and practically. In the Ottoman Empire, however, most sipahis integrated into the general populace, becoming either peasants or part of the bourgeoisie. Only a few became ayan (local notables) and amassed land as landlords. 

Following the decline of the timar system, powerful and independent figures such as Karaosmanoğlu, Çapanoğlu, and Pizvantoğlu emerged in Anatolia and Rumelia, referred to as “derebeys” (feudal lords). However, they cannot be equated to European feudal lords.