WHO STOPPED YOU FROM DOING TRADE?

The words of the late businessman Vehbi Koç are frequently brought up these days. Koç, the son of a well-off merchant from Ankara who had no qualms about partnering with a Jewish businessman to amass wealth, made a statement that seems very innocent and nationalistic at first glance but is actually rooted in a negative racial rhetoric:

"The Turks went to the military to die, to fall ill. Non-Muslims paid a fee and did not serve in the military. Turks worked as grocers, watchmen, and carriage drivers. Every business was in the hands of others. They made great fortunes and lived in the best places. We looked at them in admiration.”

When Mustafa Kemal, head of the Turkish State, visited Mersin on March 17, 1923, he pointed to neatly cut stone houses belonging to non-Muslims and asked, “Where were you when these houses were being built?” The well-known response of Hafız Emin, “We were in Yemen, Pasha” is frequently cited in modern historical literature as an expression of official ideology. He was implying that Turkish youth were forced to fight on distant fronts such as Yemen.

Before consuming the Jews, the Nazis described them as “leeches sucking Germany’s blood.” This is one of the most commonly used slogans for eliminating the “other”: “While we were dying, they became wealthy!”

Every Turk Is Born a Merchant!

Since there have been few studies on Anatolian social history, and due to the influence of recent chauvinistic propaganda, there is a widespread belief that non-Muslims forcefully took trade out of the hands of Muslims.

First of all, Turks were not strangers to trade. Although livestock farming and later agriculture played a significant role in their lives, they had been renowned for engaging in various forms of trade since Central Asia. The Volga Bulgars advanced in the fur trade. The Avars were the foremost gold traders in history. The commercial skills of Azerbaijanis were legendary.

Honest trade is praised in Islamic culture. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) himself engaged in trade and stated, “Nine-tenths of profit lies in trade,” and “The honest merchant will be with the prophets.”

In Ottoman society, trade was always in the hands of Muslim Turks. Even in the smallest towns, covered bazaars, marketplaces (bedestens), and inns stood as dazzling witnesses to the past. The Ottoman guild system, inherited from the Seljuks and capable of pressuring authorities when necessary, proves that Turks held power in trade.

Camel caravans transported goods from Aydın to Van. Ottoman merchants engaged in trade across a vast geography from Venice to India. There were Turkish traders with numerous ships. In 1621, there was a Turkish trade inn (Fondaco dei Turchi) in Venice housing 120 merchants, which operated for two centuries.

In his book Maarifname, Sinan Pasha (d. 1486), Ottoman scholar, mystic and statesman, advised the ruler: “Treat merchants well. Always protect them. Do not allow anyone to harm or disrupt them. Because thanks to them, the country prospers, abundance spreads, and the Sultan’s fame reaches far and wide.”

Only a small number of non-Muslim citizens were engaged in trade. They could not own large estates. They could not extract minerals. They could not lead a luxurious life. They could not become civil servants or soldiers. They could not acquire spoils of war.

Those who were not peasants engaged in various trades, from moneylending to masonry, from medicine to blacksmithing. Jews lived exclusively in cities. From Romania to Morea, nearly all Christian peasants in Rumelia were serfs of the Turks. The root cause of the Greek, Serbian, and Bulgarian uprisings lies here.

Who Could Have Hold You Back?

The reason for the Turks' commercial decline was not their being slaughtered on the battlefield. That is an issue primarily concerning the period between 1911 and 1922. Not every era is the same. If Turks had wanted to engage in trade, who could have hold them back?

Since the defeat at Vienna in 1683, the psychological impact of military losses in Rumelia led the Turks to an unexpected and inexplicable withdrawal into themselves. This resulted in non-Muslims gaining prominence in trade by the early 19th century. Additionally, from this century onward, the settlement of nomadic Turkmens in Anatolia weakened the commercial life among Turks.

Influenced by the French Revolution, non-Muslims who developed a sense of national identity advanced intellectually. While Turks accustomed to spending beyond their means drowned in extravagance, non-Muslims accumulated capital. With the abolition of the Ottoman timar (fief) system, they participated in ashar (tithe tax) auctions and became wealthy.

As the fear of the Turks dissipated, foreigners increasing their trade with the Ottoman Empire found it easier to do business with those of their own religion and culture—such as those who drank alcohol. Given the unpredictability of government actions, these merchants secured special statuses and protection through international agreements.

Between 1600 and 1800, Ottoman trade volume grew slowly and intermittently due to wars and turmoil. After this period, however, it accelerated.

One Is Not Made a Merchant—One Is Born a Merchant!

During the post-Tanzimat era of increased foreign trade, Turks did not entirely neglect international trade. For example, in the districts of Afyon, Turkish merchants exported opium abroad. Kayseri, Eğin, Akseki, Sivrihisar, and Kula were towns renowned for trade.

In the past, everyone continued their father’s profession. This was highly suitable for social order. Capital and experience were not wasted. The Turkish saying “A merchant is trained from the seed” was well-known. Aside from that, those who wanted to become merchants could succeed only if they had the aptitude. There was a common saying: “One is not made a merchant—one is born a merchant.” If someone attempted to start a business in their 40s, people would wonder how long it would take before they went bankrupt.

When my grandfather was a child, he would arrange items in front of the window in Kemah, where his father was the head of the military recruitment office, and say, “I’m playing shopkeeper.” The neighbors would tell his mother, “This child will surely become a merchant.” But my grandmother, the daughter of a religious scholar, would disapprove: “Nonsense! We will educate him and make him a captain like his father.” Losing his father at the age of six and unable to continue his education due to war and the hardships of migration, my grandfather nonetheless became a successful merchant under the circumstances.

Who Goes to the Military?

In the classical era, the general population did not serve in the military. A portion of the army consisted of professional soldiers, while the rest comprised provincial troops under the command of the Ottoman timar cavalrymen. Since military service promised spoils of war, fearless volunteers eagerly enlisted.

Because defending the homeland was considered a religious duty, non-Muslim citizens were not drafted but paid a monetary exemption fee of 50 gold coins. Mandatory military service was introduced only after 1826. The number of soldiers was fixed, and only as many were drafted as needed through a lottery system.

In the last century, compulsory service lasted a maximum of four years. There was an option to pay a monetary fee or send a substitute in one’s place. Military exemptions were extensive.

Modern mandatory conscription spread worldwide from the 19th century onward. It was not only about defending the homeland but also about shaping citizens in harmony with centralized authority. There are no serious statistical records on the proportion of youth pacified through military service relative to the total population. Given these facts, the claim that Turks could not engage in trade because they served in the military does not hold water.

War Profiteers

In 1909, non-Muslims were also conscripted into the army, but they were not given weapons and were employed in labor battalions for rear services, where most perished due to neglect and disease. Non-Muslim Ottoman soldiers can also be seen in military cemeteries.

During this period, due to the official policy of extermination, many non-Muslims lost their lives. What wealth could they have accumulated?

However, when the Young Turks sent the sons of the nation to the front lines, it was once again the “Turks” who accumulated wealth at home. The term “war profiteer,” which became the subject of poems and novels, emerged from this reality.

After the extermination of non-Muslims, the military service adventures of the Turks continued to increase. There were no longer exemptions or payments to avoid conscription. In the past, people were conscripted in their hometowns, but now they were sent to the other end of the country, where their families had no news of them.

Even though Türkiye did not enter World War II, one million soldiers were conscripted. The rural population, which made up 85% of the total, lost its workforce. Over six years, despite not engaging in war, the number of casualties in the Turkish army was officially declared as 22,633.

During the country's impoverished times, the most productive segment of society, at the peak of its efficiency, was kept like prisoners for at least four years despite the absence of war. How could they have become wealthy? The party elites were already accumulating wealth in their name.

Do I Look Like an Artin?

In recent times, it is also true that commerce was not favored by the Turks and was even looked down upon. When a merchant sought a girl’s hand in marriage, her father responded, “I won’t give my daughter to someone like Kevork (an Armenian name implying being a merchant), who licks the underside of a scale (being deeply involved in trade).” When a provincial noble urged his troublesome son, “At least stay at our fabric shop!” the son’s response was intriguing: “Do I look like an Artin (an Armenian name implying being a merchant), measuring out fabric?”

When a father scolded his son for selling 100 sheep to open a fabric store, he lamented, “You gave away our black-eyed, kohl-rimmed little sheep for these rags?” However, when the son managed to buy 100 sheep from his profits within a year, the father praised him, saying, “Well done!”

Animal husbandry was the number one trade. It did not require settling in one place, was independent, profitable, and honorable. Agriculture, craftsmanship, and commerce followed in that order.

Even today, the ratio of commerce to national income in Türkiye remains very low. Since there are no longer any non-Muslim citizens, whose fault is it?

Become a Civil Servant, Live in Misery!

Was it only commerce? In truth, working as a civil servant was not a profession favored by a people who loved a free life. It meant living within limits, under orders, with a fixed income, and in monotony. Animal husbandry, agriculture, craftsmanship, and commerce were not like that.

In the past, rowboats could not cross the Akıntıburnu (a strong current in the Bosphorus) solely by rowing, so they had to be towed with ropes by laborers onshore for a fee. One day, while poet Haşmet was heading to the mansion of Ragıp Pasha, whom he served as a companion, he asked a young and handsome laborer pulling his boat, “Boy, why are you working as a towman? Come, I’ll take you under my wing.” The boy replied, “Sir, my father told me: ‘Lead a pack of dogs if you must, earn your own money, but never serve anyone!’”

Until the second half of the 19th century, there was not much need for civil servants. Schools for public administration and universities struggled to find students. As the civil service expanded, the demand for officials increased. During this period, becoming a civil servant became popular. Girls began dreaming of marrying a clerk. Civil servants received good salaries and had pensions. Civil service had become a job where the paycheck never stopped, even for the dead.

After the 1897 Greco-Turkish War, civil servant salaries were reduced, and even then, they were only paid once every three months, causing the prestige of the profession to decline again. The public both feared civil servants and pitied them. A girl that no one else would marry was educated and given to a civil servant. Even a Turkish gypsy (abdal) would warn his son, “Learn to play the zurna (a traditional wind instrument), or else I’ll send you to school, make you a civil servant, and you’ll suffer endlessly!”