THE OTTOMANS ALSO STRUGGLED WITH SALAFIS... KADIZADE MOVEMENT

The Kadızadeli (Qadizadali) movement, initiated by a few anti-Sufi preachers, resulted in harassment of dervish lodges and incitement of public rebellion. The government responded harshly.

Despite being a religious state, the Ottoman Empire refrained from interfering with the beliefs and practices of its people, even when they contradicted the state’s official religious doctrine. In other words, the state did not monitor people’s homes or minds unless their actions disrupted social order. When such disruption occurred, however, there was no leniency. Shari’a principles dictated such a response.

The Predecessors of the Salafis

The principles of what is now known as Wahhabism/Salafism are rooted in the ideas of Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), a scholar from Harran who initially adhered to the Hanbali school of thought. Renowned for his knowledge and piety, this scholar rejected concepts such as Sufism, miracles (karamat), intercession, and visits to graves, considering them as bid‘ah (innovation in religion). Claiming to restore Islam to its original purity, he espoused ideas resembling those of the anthropomorphist sects like the Mujassima and Mushabbiha, which attributed human characteristics to God. His negative remarks about the Sahabah (companions of the Prophet Muhammad) and his unorthodox legal opinions led to his condemnation in Damascus and Cairo. Both he and his followers faced severe criticism during their lifetimes and were accused of bid'ah and even ilhad (disbelief).

The Kadızadeliler movement that erupted in Istanbul during the 17th century doctrinally traces back to Ibn Taymiyyah. The movement began with the debates initiated by preacher Mehmed Efendi of Balıkesir, known as Küçük Kadızade, against Halveti Sheikh Abdülmecid Sivasi. Members of the Kadızadeliler opposed Sufi rituals such as sama (chanting) and devran (whirling), the study of positive sciences, recitation of the Quran, call to prayer (adhan) recited in musical maqam style, and mawlid with melodies, congregational supererogatory prayers, grave visits, smoking, coffee, and handshaking. They asserted that Khidr was not alive, that the Prophet’s parents died as unbelievers, declared Ibn Arabi an infidel, and supported cursing Yazid.

Küçük Kadızade did not meet Muhammad Birgivi but studied some of his works and was closely aligned with Ibn Taymiyyah to the extent of translating his works into Turkish. He briefly joined a Sufi order but left, finding Sufism incompatible with his temperament. His sermons at the Fatih and Hagia Sophia pulpits drew attention. Other Kadızadelis, however, lacked substantial education, as evidenced by their ignorant arguments in debates with the Sivasis. Despite this, they were highly persuasive individuals.

The Final Straw

Sultan Murad IV tolerated the Kadızadelis in the interest of maintaining balance. With Kadızade's death in 1635, the movement’s first phase ended. During the reigns of Sultan Ibrahim and Sultan Mehmed IV, Üstüvani Mehmed Efendi, a disciple of the previous leader, headed the movement. The Kadızadelis gained significant influence, both among the people and within the state, even affecting appointments and dismissals. Abdülehad Nuri Efendi, leader of the Sivasis, dealt a heavy blow to the Kadızadelis with his writings. Unable to succeed in scholarly debates, the Kadızadelis exploited the deteriorating economic and social conditions caused by prolonged wars and rebellions to incite unrest. They raided dervish lodges, harassed sheikhs, and caused the deaths of some dervishes. They threatened Sheikh al-Islam Baha'i Efendi, a member of a Sufi order, forcing him to issue a fatwa declaring devran unlawful. They sent a letter to the sheikh of the Sivasi lodge, stating that they would raid the lodge, kill him and his disciples, destroy the lodge to its foundations, and scatter its soil into the sea, declaring that prayers would not be performed there until this was done. The sheikh appealed to the Sheikh al-Islam; their leader, Üstüvani, was summoned but refused to come, seeking refuge under the protection of influential figures within the state.

During the Venetian fleet’s presence near the Dardanelles, they incited rebellion, using the recitation of na‘at (poetry in praise of the Prophet Muhammad) in the Fatih Mosque as a pretext to revolt. They roamed the streets, coercing people into reaffirming their faith under threat and plotting to demolish the minarets of imperial mosques. This escalation prompted Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed Pasha to gather the scholars and obtain a fatwa for the execution of the Kadızadelis. Following the Sultan’s decree, Üstüvani and his followers were arrested, and their punishment was reduced to exile (1656). This marked the end of the movement’s second phase.

A few years later, palace tutor Vani Mehmed Efendi attempted to revive the Kadızadeli movement. He succeeded in closing Mevlevi lodges and banning grave visits and tobacco. He also exiled the renowned Sufi Niyazi Mısri to Limni. However, he eventually fell out of favor and was exiled to Kestel, marking the movement’s third phase (1683). The district of Vaniköy, where his mansion once stood, bears his name. One of his notable works is “Arais”, which addresses Quranic narratives. It is worth noting that the lexicographer Vankulu is a different person. His son-in-law, Sheikh al-Islam Feyzullah Efendi, played a role in the Edirne Incident, leading to the Sultan’s dethronement. Nevertheless, throughout history, there have always been crude and ignorant zealots (in the words of Sheikh Abdulhakim Arvasi, "uncultured bigots") who, despite their lack of knowledge, indiscriminately declared things prohibited (haram) and attributed bid’ah or kufr (blasphemy) to others. Some individuals have mistakenly judged religion based on the actions of such people.

Imam Malik once said, “Those who pursue Sufism without studying jurisprudence become heretics. Those who study jurisprudence without engaging with Sufism become misguided. The truth lies in combining both.” In the Ottoman era, the scholarly and Sufi communities were deeply intertwined. Many scholars belonged to Sufi orders, and the Ottomans ensured that Sufism remained within the bounds of Shari’a. Thus, the Kadızadeli phenomenon was not a conflict between scholars and Sufi orders but a manifestation of the fanaticism of a faction that the Ottoman society and government sought to extinguish collectively. Historians such as Naima and Katib Çelebi provide detailed accounts of these events, which also attracted European interest and led to numerous studies.

Which Kadızade?

Many scholars bore the name Kadızade in the Ottoman era. Kadızade Ahmed Şemseddin Efendi (d. 1580), a student of Ebussuud Efendi and an Ottoman Sheikh al-Islam, is one. Another is the mathematician Kadızade-i Rumi (also spelled "Qadi Zada al-Rumi" d. 1440). Others include Kadızade Emin (d. 1783), author of commentaries on Birgivi’s “Vasiyyetname” and “Amantu”; Kadızade Mehmed (d. 1759); and Kadızade Tahir Efendi (d. 1838), the Sheikh al-Islam who issued the fatwa abolishing the Janissary Corps.