DID THE OTTOMAN SULTANS DRINK ALCOHOL?

Everything started about a few decades ago when an elderly and flamboyant newspaper columnist claimed, "Sultan Abdulhamid II used to drink rum. Are we supposed to know better than his grandson, who saw his grandfather many times?" The grandson referred to was Shahzade (Prince) Osman Ertuğrul Efendi, who was the head of the Ottoman dynasty at that time.

However, Prince Ertuğrul Efendi was born in August 1912. By that time, Sultan Abdulhamid II had been deposed and was being held captive at the Beylerbeyi Palace, where he was not allowed to meet with anyone, not even his relatives. Just before his death in February 1918, he was permitted to see his relatives on the occasion of a holiday.

When we met with the late Osman Ertuğrul Efendi, he told us that he visited his grandfather a few times at the Beylerbeyi Palace, along with his father, Shahzade Burhaneddin Efendi, when he was five years old. He said his grandfather had held him in his lap and showed him affection. He added, "My grandfather was very religious; he would not touch alcohol." How could Ertuğrul Efendi know that his grandfather drank rum when he only saw him briefly, twice, when he was five years old? Even if he said such a thing, since it is unlikely that he would lie, perhaps he heard it from someone else. Moreover, in a TV interview with the Prince, this claim was expressed as if it had been heard from a third party. Those who knew Sultan Abdulhamid II much more closely and saw him many times say the exact opposite.

While the matter seemed settled, a newly emerging historian from a popular newspaper wrote an article on which Ottoman sultans drank alcohol. The information in this article was derived from a poet-historian who lived in the 18th century. Osmanzade Taib was a scholar who had been dismissed from teaching due to his unruly lifestyle; he was known for incorporating into his books whatever he heard from here and there.

In this particular case, Osmanzade Taib’s primary source was historian Mustafa Ali of Gallipoli. His exaggerated statements were always met with caution by scholarly circles. For instance, his opposition to the clique of Şemsi Pasha led him to accuse Sultan Murad III of taking bribes.

Osmanzade’s second source was the Arab poet al-Jahiz, who lived in the 9th century. Jahiz was known for his affiliation with the Shia/Mutazila sect. If he were to testify in a court at that time, his testimony would not be accepted, so the reliability of his statements is questionable. A historian does not base his words on just any book, story, or document he comes across; he subjects them to critique.

Go Get a Bottle from the Store!

First of all, knowing whether the Ottoman sultans drank alcohol is almost impossible. This is because sultans, including their families, did not eat with anyone. In fact, there is a provision about this in the "Code of Mehmed II." The sultan’s meals were delivered from his private kitchen in sealed trays, served by servants inside the harem and by aghas outside the harem. This tradition continued until the final years of Sultan Abdulhamid II. Even if the sultans drank alcohol, it would have been impossible for anyone to see it.

Moreover, Islam considers drinking alcohol a major sin and prescribes a punishment of eighty lashes for those who consume it. Under such circumstances, drinking alcohol in a Muslim society was not easy. Apart from prophets, no one is infallible. Everyone can make mistakes or commit sins, but one cannot pass judgment on a person without knowing for sure. It is not easy to make definitive statements about such a private matter, especially centuries after the fact. There is no clear information on this matter in serious Ottoman histories.

Furthermore, although the palace kitchen records found in today’s archives detail every item that entered the palace down to the smallest detail, no mention of alcohol is found. The allocation of wine for foreign ambassadors is noted, but there is no record of alcohol entering the palace. The sultan certainly wouldn’t give money to someone next to him and say, "Go get some alcohol from the store!"

Umayyads and Abbasids Also Accused

Similar claims have been made about earlier Muslim rulers. For example, many things have been said about some Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. However, history books do not stop praising their virtues. A quick look at "Mir'at-i Kainat" by Nishancizade is enough to confirm this. Yes, some of them had personal weaknesses and led debauched lives, but even they did no harm to religion or the nation, only to themselves. In these cases, it was the state officials and close circles around them who contributed to these faults.

Later historians exaggerated these mistakes to ingratiate themselves with the rulers of their time, even going so far as to fabricate hadiths in the process. Some Ottoman histories, due to their proximity in time and geography, were translations of these earlier histories and thus repeated the same mistakes.

Our newly emerging historian’s source, Jahiz, claims that Umar ibn al-Khattab was one of those who were punished for drinking alcohol. Some sources mention that Umar ibn al-Khattab’s son was punished with eighty lashes for drinking alcohol by his own father. Umar ibn al-Khattab may have drunk wine before it was prohibited. However, after it was banned, there is no record of him drinking alcohol or being punished for it. No Muslim would ever say this about Umar ibn al-Khattab, whom Islam considers the second greatest figure after the prophets. But Jahiz was an extreme Shiite. It’s not surprising for someone who doesn’t even consider Abu Bakr al-Siddiq a Muslim to say such things.

Today, even very ordinary people avoid drinking alcohol, believing it to be a sin, so it is hard to believe that the Ottoman sultans, who dedicated their lives to religion, filled the country with charitable works, and are remembered for their piety in legend books, were so indifferent to religion or personally weak. It all stems from likening the Ottoman sultans to European kings, who could do whatever they wanted. But the sultans were bound by religion and tradition.

King's Daughter Got Him Used to It

Sultan Bayezid I, who is accused of being the first sultan to drink alcohol, built Bursa's Grand Mosque (Ulu Cami) and the mosque named after him. He had forced the Byzantine Emperor to accept the establishment of a Muslim neighborhood in Istanbul, along with the construction of a mosque and the appointment of a judge. He conversed with the famous Sufi Emir Sultan and even gave his daughter to him in marriage. According to historians Neşrî and Aşıkpaşazâde, who took from Neşrî, the Serbian king's daughter introduced Sultan Bayezid I to wine and kebabs, stating that prior to him, the sultans didn’t even know what alcohol was. 

Since both historians lived at least a century after the sultan, they likely repeated the slander created by those angry with the sultan due to ethnic chauvinism. His marriage to the Serbian king’s daughter was a political one, and the notion that he would drink alcohol at her behest is questionable. As for the claim attributed to Emir Sultan, saying, "At least build four taverns next to Grand Mosque," it is nothing but baseless slander. Moreover, Neşrî praises the sultan's piety and justice, stating that he repented and commissioned the construction of Grand Mosque.

A modern historian claims that the custom of drinking alcohol continued with Sultan Mehmed I. However, Sultan Mehmed I, who saved the Ottoman state from the brink of collapse, was the grandson of Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi on his mother's side, and his lineage traces back to the Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq and Umar ibn al-Khattab. He also immortalized the name of Bursa’s Green Mosque (Yeşil Cami).

The same historian further claims that Sultan Murad II, Sultan Mehmed II, who conquered Istanbul and earned the Prophet’s praise, and Sultan Bayezid II, known for his piety, also drank alcohol. Sultan Selim I, who spent his eight-year reign protecting Sunni Islam from the Safavids and conquering the sacred Muslim land of Hejaz, supposedly drank occasionally but would become intoxicated quickly. Sultan Suleiman I, known for his justice and who adorned the Ottoman Empire with charitable works, allegedly drank in his earlier years but later gave it up. These claims are not worth addressing.

What Does It Matter if Tax is Collected from Taverns?

In Islamic law, non-Muslims are not prohibited from drinking alcohol, and they were also free to sell it and open taverns. The government collected substantial taxes from these activities, which is similar to how Sultan Abdulhamid II established rakı and beer factories during his reign. During Sultan Suleiman I's time, non-Muslims were prohibited from opening taverns in Muslim-majority neighborhoods, but this was later reversed under Sultan Selim II to alleviate the treasury, which had been strained by the campaigns of Cyprus and Lepanto. 

It’s no secret that taxes were collected from non-Muslim taverns and the sale of alcohol. However, those unaware of these details attributed the lifting of the ban to one sultan’s piety and another’s fondness for alcohol, even giving Sultan Selim II the nickname "Sarhoş Selim" (Drunkard Selim). Despite him fainting and suffering a stroke while inspecting the bathhouse of his palace, it was falsely claimed that he died while chasing girls in a drunken state. Sultan Selim II, known for his devotion to the Khalwati Sufi order, demonstrated his piety by commissioning the construction of the Selimiye Mosque. He also had the Hagia Sophia Mosque thoroughly restored.

The modern historian also writes that although the sultan drank alcohol, he still prayed five times a day and later repented at the urging of his sheikh. He even refused medicine on his deathbed, thinking it contained alcohol. In Sufism, it is customary for disciples to perform a general repentance when pledging allegiance to a sheikh. Osmanzade Taib mistakenly believed that the sultan had repented from alcohol. But how could he know for sure—was he present? Some books even suggest that the sultan desired the conquest of Cyprus for its wine, although if he had wanted wine, he could have had it brought from anywhere. Cyprus was a former Islamic land, conquered during the time of Caliph Muawiya, which was later lost. According to historical sources, the Divan-ı Hümâyun (Imperial Council) initially decided not to undertake the Cyprus campaign, but the sultan had a dream in which the Prophet Muhammad commanded the conquest. Despite Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha's objections, the sultan insisted on launching the campaign, and as a token of gratitude, the Selimiye Mosque in Cyprus was endowed.

Sultan Murad IV, infamous for his harsh enforcement of the alcohol and tobacco ban, did not drink alcohol but took opium (morphine) extracts prescribed by his chief physician to alleviate the pain of his gout. These caused drowsiness and lethargy, and those who saw him walking unsteadily presumed he was drunk. Court officials disliked the sultan's companions, such as Emirgûneoğlu, and to justify their opposition, claimed they had led the sultan into debauchery. These accusations of alcohol use were even exploited in the political rivalries of the time. Like his father, Sultan Murad IV was devoted to Aziz Mahmud Hudayi, and he had the current structure of the Kaaba rebuilt after a flood destroyed it. He also restored Karaköy Arab Mosque from ruins.

Claims that the calligrapher Sultan Ahmed III, who commissioned Üsküdar Yeni Cami and two elegant fountains in the city, or Sultan Mahmud I, who began the construction of Nuruosmaniye Mosque and built several others, drank alcohol lack any evidence. Yet, one historian vividly describes Sultan Ahmed III drinking rakı on a specific balcony, leaning on a particular cushion, as if he witnessed it firsthand.

Carry Me to a Mosque

These modern historians, with their statistics, have determined that Sultan Mahmud II was the most fond of alcohol among the sultans. Supposedly, he would get so drunk that palace attendants would have to carry him to his carriage and bring him to the palace. There is ample evidence of this pious sultan's devotion. He located and restored the graves of all the Sahabah in Istanbul and built numerous mosques, including the elegant Nusretiye Mosque in Tophane, Hidayet Mosque in Eminönü, Adliye Mosque in Üsküdar, and Tevfikiye Mosque in Arnavutköy. He expelled the Wahhabis from the Hejaz and commissioned the green dome over the Prophet’s grave. His touching poem, written to accompany a golden candlestick sent to the Prophet’s shrine, expresses his deep love for the Prophet: “I dared to present a candlestick, O Messenger of Allah.”

Suffering from advanced tuberculosis, he became gravely ill at his sister's villa in Çamlıca and reportedly said, “Carry me to a mosque so that I may die there.” Sultan Mahmud’s closure of the Janissary Corps and its associated Bektaşi lodges led to some calling him the "Infidel Sultan," and others, whose benefits had been cut off by the new order, eagerly adopted this label. It was probably these same people who accused him of drinking. The ones who called the sultan an infidel had little connection to true Islam themselves.

Sultan Mahmud's son, Sultan Abdulmajid, built today’s version of the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina and constructed elegant mosques such as the Hırka-ı Şerif (Blessed Mantle of the Prophet), Dolmabahçe, Ortaköy, and Teşvikiye mosques. Out of humility, he inscribed his name on the tiles installed in the Kaaba so that they would be under the feet of pilgrims. It is well known that when he was on his deathbed, he stood up out of respect to hear a letter read from the people of Medina. Moreover, he was a disciple of the Naqshbandi sheikh, Yanyalı Ismet Efendi. He requested that his tomb in Sultan Selim Mosque’s courtyard be built lower than Sultan Selim’s and asked that the disciples of the Yanyalı Ismet Efendi Tekke recite the Khatm-i Khajagan in his tomb every Friday night.

Kilisli Mustafa Işki Efendi wrote a book called "Mawarid al-Majidiyye", describing the virtues and miracles of Sultan Abdulmajid. This humble, polite, and tender-hearted sultan was not spared from accusations. A contemporary historian even claimed, as if he had witnessed it himself, that the sultan was so drunk that he had to be placed in a basket and carried to the palace by porters. Even if Sultan Abdulmajid drank alcohol, he would never have done so in such a crude manner, given his refined character. Both Sultan Abdulmajid and Sultan Mahmud were reformist sultans. Reformist rulers are often disliked. During their time, society was divided into two camps. Since those opposed to reform couldn’t criticize the sultan openly, they attributed their “madness for reform” to the sultans’ alleged drunkenness.

Should We Drink Just for Politeness?

Sultan Murad V, known for his handsome appearance, courteous manners, and democratic demeanor, resembled the rulers of modern European monarchies. However, after the tragic death of his uncle, Sultan Abdulaziz, he fell into a deep depression and was deposed due to mental incapacity. It is clear that a person in such a state cannot be held accountable for their actions. Moreover, there is no reliable evidence in trustworthy sources that he drank alcohol. Some Young Turks, in an attempt to associate themselves with this forward-thinking sultan, falsely claimed to have shared drinking sessions with him. Celalettin Pasha, in his work "Mir’at-ı Haqiqat", mentioned this claim in an effort to justify the sultan's deposition to the public. As another modern historian also wrote, Sultan Mehmed V did not consume alcohol.

As for Sultan Abdulhamid II, whose daily life is well-documented almost to the second, the only report suggesting that he drank comes from one of his last grand viziers, Tevfik Pasha. Allegedly, in his youth, the sultan occasionally drank with his brothers but swore off alcohol after a car accident on his way back to his palace. Tevfik Pasha shared this story with İbnülemin. Even if true, repentance from a mistake is a virtue. The sultan's piety is widely agreed upon by almost everyone. His wife, Behice Kadınefendi, said that the sultan was so devout that he would even perform dry ablution (tayammum) to avoid stepping on the floor without ablution between leaving the toilet and going to the bath. His daughters, his doctor, and his attendants all clearly wrote about his piety in all aspects, stating that he never drank alcohol, did not like those who drank, and that no alcohol was allowed in the palace. After the Second Constitutional Era, the Young Turks spread numerous rumors to tarnish Sultan Abdulhamid II's image. Abdullah Cevdet admitted, "I invented a hundred lies about Sultan Abdulhamid, and I even came to believe some of them."

What Does “Ishrat” Mean?

According to a modern historian’s source, "Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror and Sultan Bayezid II would occasionally engage in "iysh u nush" (feasting and merriment) with their commanders and viziers. Bayezid II even executed Grand Vizier Gedik Ahmed Pasha during one such session." The author translates "iysh u nush", as a drinking party and "ishrat", as drinking. Yahya Efendi, the Sheikh al-Islam of Sultan Murad IV, penned the couplet, "Let the hypocrites practice hypocrisy in the mosque; come to the tavern, where there is no hypocrisy, no false piety." The historian then asks, "So, how do we interpret this poem?" Anyone with a bit of understanding of classical literature and Sufism would not struggle to interpret it. In Eastern literature and classical Ottoman poetry, the tavern symbolizes a meeting place with the beloved or a Sufi lodge; the cupbearer (saki) represents the beloved or a spiritual guide; and wine symbolizes divine love.

"Iysh" means living, and "ishrat" means entertainment or revelry. Both words are Arabic. Entertainment does not necessarily involve drinking alcohol. Socializing with friends and family in a manner permitted by religion is not forbidden. In fact, scholars have advised state officials to engage in occasional leisure activities to relax their minds and soothe their egos for better decision-making. This is also referred to as "iysh u ishrat". "Nush" is Persian for drinking and is used for both water and sherbet. The term "dolu" in old Turkish referred to any beverage other than water that had water mixed into it. This included wine, sharbat, and even buttermilk. There is even the grave of a saint known as "Dolu Baba" in Bursa, famous for providing buttermilk to soldiers. "Saki" is not only the one who serves alcohol but also someone who serves water. The word comes from the Arabic "saqi", meaning "one who waters." The word "saka" (water carrier) comes from this root.

In Arabic, "sharab" means something to be drunk. Words like sharbat, soup, and syrup all share the same root. The Qur'an specifically prohibits "hamr", which is fermented alcohol. Today, we call this wine. However, in ancient texts, "sharab" was used for any drink. It is a grave mistake to pass judgments on a period without knowing its language and terminology!

Moreover, while Islam strictly forbids alcohol made from grapes and dates, there are other types of alcohol for which some scholars have permitted the consumption of a non-intoxicating amount for medicinal purposes. Rum is one such example. Therefore, it is important not to make sweeping statements without knowing the reasons behind consumption. As previously mentioned, many Ottoman sultans suffered from gout and took opium extracts to alleviate severe pain, as proper medicine was unavailable. Physicians often diluted alcohol and used it in treatments. Sultan Mahmud II's physician, Izzet Molla, recounts this. This might also explain the accusations of alcohol consumption against some sultans.

Rulers Have Many Enemies!

"The subject of Sultans and Alcohol" is too specific and insignificant to be considered a historical matter. History concerns itself with the roles individuals play in events, not their private lives. This is more of a tabloid issue. Yet many seem eager to turn it into a historical matter. Why? Is it an attempt to say to conservative circles, "Look at the state of the sultans you idealize!" and thus deliver a message about the values they represent? Or is it a veiled attempt to promote alcohol consumption among conservatives?

The Ottoman sultans, with all their faults and virtues, have passed into history. Regardless of what anyone says, their merits far outweigh their shortcomings. Their heroism, courage, respect for traditions, appreciation of knowledge and art, grace, and compassion have earned them a distinguished place in not only Turkish-Islamic history but also world history. Even if they had faults, this does not diminish their overall image. It is normal that there were large groups of people dissatisfied with the actions, particularly the strictness, of some sultans. It is also understandable that such groups would focus on their personalities rather than their actions to weaken the image of the sultans in the public eye. Rulers have many enemies. Sultan Abdulhamid II, in particular, is often portrayed as a controversial figure due to the opposing perspectives on him in the last century.

It is the duty of scholars not to speak with certainty on matters lacking clear evidence. Accounts of events from centuries ago cannot be presented as if one had witnessed them firsthand. Islam commands us not to believe immediately in news brought by someone unknown, especially by a sinful person, and warns, "Do not pursue that of which you have no knowledge!" A person who tells others about someone else's hidden sin is called a "fasiq" (sinner), and their words are not to be trusted. Drinking alcohol is forbidden by the Qur’an. Whether to abide by this is a matter of personal choice. However, passing judgment on historical figures who cannot defend themselves based on rumors is neither anyone’s right nor their business. Furthermore, in the Turkish-Islamic tradition, there is the principle: "Remember your deceased with good words!" In scholarly matters, it is an ethical obligation to be cautious of rumors and act with moderation.